Arguing God from Design, by Richard Swinburne

by Robert Lawrence Kuhn (12/25/10 7:18 pm)

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For at least 3,000 years, thinkers have argued that the orderliness of the universe shows that it was made and sustained by a creator God—in other words, it was designed. Here is my modern version of this argument.

Our world is a very orderly place. It is governed almost entirely by “laws of nature.” But “laws of nature” are simply statements about the powers and liabilities of things. Newton’s law of gravity, for example, states that every material body has the power to attract each and every other material body with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart—and the liability always to exercise that power on every other material body in the universe. There is enormous uniformity in the behavior of material objects. In certain respects (such as those described by Newton’s law), they all behave in the same way, and then they fall into a few distinct kinds (electrons, protons, neutrons, etc.), all the members of which behave in the same way as each other in further respects.

Yet our universe is not just any simple orderly universe. Its laws and initial conditions (the distribution of matter-energy at the time of the big bang and the velocity of the bang) led to the evolution of humans. In almost any possible universe, each material object would behave in a very complicated way different from that of every other material object—and almost any other universe in which material objects behaved in simple ways would not have been able to lead to the evolution of humans. How can we explain the enormous human-producing coincidence?

An explanatory hypothesis is probably true insofar as it is simple and leads us to expect otherwise unexpected data. The hypothesis of theism is that there is a God that is an omnipotent, omniscient, and perfectly free being. An omniscient being will know what things are good, and if this being is also perfectly free, will not be deterred by irrational desires from pursuing the good. Humans have a kind of goodness that even God does not possess: the power to choose between good and evil. So it is to be expected that a God will bring about humans, and so the necessary conditions for their existence. But we’ll only be able to choose to bring about good or evil if there are simple laws of nature that cause our actions to have predictable effects, and only if those laws are human-producing will we exist at all.

Therefore, the otherwise unexpected orderliness of the universe is to be expected if there is a God. Of course, we could not observe anything except an orderly universe (for if the universe were not orderly, we would not exist). But that doesn’t mean the order does not need explaining—just as the mere fact that fetuses develop into humans still needs explaining, even though if they did not develop into humans, humans would not be around to observe and explain things. It may be, as some physicists believe, that our universe is only one of many universes, which together form a “multiverse.” 

But the only reason they can have for believing in other universes is that the most general laws of our universe are such as to produce other universes, and that means that the multiverse itself—our multiverse (unlike most possible multiverses)—is governed by laws such as to produce, at some time, a human-evolving universe. So the argument takes off from the orderliness of our multiverse rather than just the orderliness of our universe. And my “argument from design” remains an enormously powerful argument for the existence of God.

 

Tags God, design, Swinburne, order, creator, theism, laws

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Archie wrote:

“Orderliness”, especially the supposed “orderliness of the universe”, may be little more than a product of the human mind, especially its tendency to look for patterns in events and environment. The question, “Why do electrons always behave like electrons?” is not (per se) evidence of some special orderliness, let alone an insight into supernatural creation – it merely prompts us to try to find out more about the behaviour of electrons.

The writings of holy men, the literary basis for religious belief, seek to find orderliness in a frustratingly disordered world – or even create an orderliness that isn’t there. If we consider the earliest creation story in the book of Genesis (chapter 2, verses 4 and following), we see that the God “Yahweh” planted a garden in Mesopotamia, but He hadn’t realised that the ground was too dry for plants to survive, so He had to invent a miracle (dew) to keep them alive until the rivers flooded. Then God had some mud to play with, so He made a mud-man that looked like Himself, and (rather like Frankenstein) brought this mud-man to life. He hadn’t foreseen that the man would get bored – so He then had to create animals to be Adam’s pets and companions. He hadn’t foreseen that the man would get lonely – so He felt obliged to make a woman out of one of the man’s ribs. God hadn’t foreseen that this woman would wreck everything... and so on. (Don’t take my word for this – read Genesis ch. 2 yourself.)

Some time after this first creation story was written (we call it the “Yahwist Source”), an intellectual revolution known as the “Axial Age” invented an orderliness for divine doings, that has characterised much theological thinking ever since. A new “priestly” creation story needed to be written (most of it in Genesis chapter 1) in which God (now named “Elohim”) became a well-organised planner with a six-day programme, creating a whole universe in what was, more or less, a logical order.

The interesting thing about the observable universe is not its orderliness, but its apparently unlimited potential for exuberant variety. Originally, everything in the universe could be understood as physics, but as soon as this early universe had cooled down sufficiently, “physics” turned out to have an (unexpected?) emergent quality: chemistry. Once the element carbon had been produced by giant stars, chemistry turned out to have an emergent quality, organic chemistry. As organic chemistry became (spontaneously?) more complex, it in turn had an emergent quality, biochemistry. Eventually, biochemistry produced a really unexpected emergent quality, biological life! This biological life could evolve by itself, to adapt to the challenges of the changing environment, so more layers were to follow: sociobiology, human psychology and society – and culture, technology, mythology, theology, and systems of intellectual investigation that enabled some of these humans to grasp an inkling of how the whole pyramid of emergent qualities had been (spontaneously?) constructed.

The problem of "orderliness" is that equilibrium is inherently unstable. Observing this instability, and influenced by his studies of biology, Aristotle concluded (from his “formal cause”) that the universe must be evolving, from an original state of disorder (chaos) towards an ultimate orderliness (cosmos). This was the opposite of traditional thinking, which was that the original “golden age” had degenerated through “silver” to the mess and muddle of the present day. Only in the twentieth century was it discovered that Aristotle had his evolution of the universe the wrong way round. The large-scale tendency is towards entropy. Complexity, the elaboration of order, is a transitional phase, a temporary and local reversal.

According to Richard Swinburne, “In almost any possible universe, each material object would behave in a very complicated way different from that of any other material object.” This is the sort of statement that looks as if it ought to be true, because it is so completely counterintuitive. The universe must have had a divine Creator, because, in terms of “all the possibilities”, it is almost impossible for it to be the way that it is. Almost every alternative universe that anyone could imagine would never work, or certainly could never work like the universe we’ve got.

This is an example of the “almost possible” fallacy, a subset of the “possibility fallacy”. The idea of “almost possible” ceased to make sense as soon as probability became a branch of mathematics (Laplace, 1812). How possible does something have to be before it becomes “almost possible”? And what exactly does “possible” mean? In theory, anything can be “possible”, even a direct contradiction (Example: in Trinitarian Christianity, God is a unity, a single divine Being; except that God is also not a unity, but three divine Beings). Careful scrutiny has revealed a diminishing value in this concept of “possibility” – although “impossibility” can still be useful (it’s the title of a book by John D. Barrow).

To illustrate the difference between possibility and probability, let us consider a phenomenon that has an extremely low probability: the existence of an individual, a real person, called Richard. The existence of Richard must be possible, because his contribution appears in “Closer to Truth”. But if we go back to a point in time a few years before Richard’s birth, it becomes overwhelmingly improbable that he will ever exist. And his existence cannot be said to be “a decision in the hands of God”, because many people use contraception these days. Richard’s mum and dad have to meet, be attracted to each other, be able to cohabit, decide to cohabit, decide to start a family, and do something about it on a particular day. If the slightest little thing goes “wrong” with this sequence, there will be no Richard! Ever! (This idea is amusingly examined in the movie, “Back to the Future”.) Then, on the occasion when Richard might possibly be conceived, a sperm has to reach the egg, and it has to be the “right” sperm! Or no Richard! The likelihood that any particular individual will ever be born is in the ball-park of one chance in many billions. And we only went back one generation.

“Orderliness” implies a degree of predictability. But everything in the universe is profoundly unpredictable, from the behaviour of subatomic particles, through next month’s weather, to the planetary “three body problem”. The probability that our universe would ever exist in the form that it actually exists in at this moment is vanishingly small. But what about “possibility”? – sorry, there is no mathematics of the possible. As Stephen Jay Gould liked to point out, if we go back just a few million years, the likelihood that there would ever be a species “Homo sapiens” becomes very remote. So what are the implications? Here is one option: If God does not control everything, every atom, every quantum of energy, every quantum of time, He doesn’t really control anything.

Posted 7:05 PM / February 17, 2012

jam2001 wrote:

Oneman wrote that the universe was created at the big bang but there is no evidencet the author of this event survived the bang. Reasoning of this type is incomplete. It is like saying that there can be nothing in a closet because the door is closed. Noone can reasonably argue from cause and effect, going back in time and then just stop when reason knows it should continue. Simply because science cannot see before the big bang is not a limitation on reality, it is a limitation on science. God is as reasonable a cause for the big bang as any.
Stating where the seat of consciousness is believed to be in the brain, is a nominal fallacy. It is offered as if it answers what consciousness is but that is false.

Posted 12:03 PM / February 13, 2012

oneman wrote:

The universe was smoothly distributed during the big bang and very very slight variations in the initial order of the universe led to the universe we see around us.

If one wanted to argue that a god was responsible for those slight deviations it does not in any way show that such a god survived the big bang.

So there may have been a god responsible for us being here but no evidence what so ever that such a god still exists. Recent claims of god hood show that god sacrifices self for others.

Life is delayed entrophy and what delays the entrophy is the incomplete dissipation of information aquired by the organic life form.

In the microtubles we find caged electrons which do not form electron clouds as they have no proton center but instead form cyclotrons which are the seat of consciousness.

Posted 8:53 AM / February 03, 2012

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